2. Case Study 2: al-Hakim bi-amr Allah
Case Study 2: al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (386-411/966-1021)
Here is the second case study that you need for this topic.
Guiding Questions:
- What were the policies of al-Hakim?
- What were al-Hakim's qualities and character?
Fact File:
Below are some links to brief posts on al-Hakim to give you an overview of his life and his rule:
al-Hakim (ii.ac.uk).
al-Hakim (ismaili.net).
al-Hakim (Britannia).
al-Hakim (bbc).
al-Hakim (wikipedia).
al-Hakim (Encyclopaedia Iranica)
Below are some quick facts and a timeline of al-Hakim's life:
What were the policies of al-Hakim?
1. Persecutory measures: On the one hand, al-Hakim's reign began a systematic decline in relations with the dhimmis (non-Muslim population). It was also a period with durations of extreme intolerance that marked the beginning of state persecution of dhimmi religious expression defined by Melkite church demolitions and banning of their Easter celebrations. The measures took definite shape by 395/1004. This may have been driven by (i) a sheer psychologically deranged and imbalanced mind or (ii) an attempt to placate the growing sunni opposition voices within the Fatimid realms (especially within Egypt) or (iii) a rapprochement with the sizable Coptic Christian community as a way of balancing competing rivalries for state support between Christian denominations.
Some of the historical sources record the favour with which al-Hakim's policy of Church demolitions was received. The program of church razing gained so much traction that one sunni Abbasid governor of Iraq at the time Qirwash b. Muqallayd switched allegiance to al-Hakim and demonstrated that by reading the Friday sermon (khutba) in the name of al-Hakim and striking the Fatimid ruler’s name on coins, both of which were purely caliphal prerogatives. Qirwash in one Friday sermon recited the following eulogy:
Thanks to God Who by His light dispels the flood of anger and by His majesty demolishes the pillars of graven images* and by His power causes the sun of righteousness to rise in the west.
Source: Cited and tr. in P. Walker, “The Ismaili Daʿwa in the Reign of the Fatimid Caliph al-Ḥākim,” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 30 (1993), p.173
* = referring to churches and the human images they contain inside.
On the other hand, al-Hakim instituted anti-sunni policies like etching calumnies, maledictions, defamation and curses of the Prophet Muhammad's senior companions like Abu Bakr, 'Umar and 'Uthman on Mosque walls between 395-398/1005-1008. He repealed these policies a few years later only to re-introduce them in 403/1013.
2. Crushing Sunni rebellion: one of the major achievements of al-Hakim was his eventual defeat of a political rebellion in 1004 from the region of Barqa instigated by an individual called Abu Rakwa who was either an Umayyad prince from Andalusia or pro-Umayyad dissident. For the details, see the handout in the link below:
3. Establishing the Dar al-'Ilm: al-Hakim founded a research and teaching institution he called the "Dar al-'Ilm" ('House of knowledge') or sometimes called "Dar al-Hikma" ('House of Wisdom' - which is not to be confused with the renown House of Wisdom founded by the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid). The institutions was erected adjacent to the Fatimid Palace in Cairo and included the teaching of a variety of subjects like:
- The Qur'an (especially recitation)
- Hadith (traditions of the Prophet).
- Law (fiqh).
- Theology.
- Logic.
- Grammar.
- Astronomy.
- Mathematics.
The institution was not only used for teaching, possibly translation and debates, but it formed a training centre for Ismaili missionary preparation and activity with the aim to recruit new converts.
On the Dar al-'Ilm and other educational institutions of learning erected under the Fatimids, see the page here.
The historian al-Maqrizi cites what al-Hakim's personal friend and court chronicler al-Musabbihi (d. 977/1030) described about the Dar al-'Ilm:
وفي يوم السبت هذا يعني العاشر من جمادى الآخرة سنة خمس وتسعين وثلثمائة: فتحت الدار الملقبة بدار الحكمة بالقاهرة، وجلس فيها الفقهاء، وحملت الكتب إليها من خزائن القصور المعمورة ودخل الناس إليها، ونسخ كل من التمس نسخ شيء مما فيها مما التمسه، وكذلك من رأى قراءة شيء مما فيها، وجلس فيها القرّاء والمنجمون، وأصحاب النحو واللغة، والأطباء بعد أن فرشت هذه الدار، وزخرفت وعلقت على جميع أبوابها وممرّاتها الستور، وأقيم قوّام وخدّام وفرّاشون، وغيرهم وسموا بخدمتها، وحصل في هذه الدار من خزائن أمير المؤمنين الحاكم بأمر الله من الكتب التي أمر بحملها إليها من سائر العلوم، والآداب والخطوط المنسوبة ما لم ير مثله مجتمعا لأحد قط من الملوك
وأباح ذلك كله لسائر الناس، على طبقاتهم ممن يؤثر قراءة الكتب، والنظر فيها فكان ذلك من المحاسن المأثورة أيضا، التي لم يسمع بمثلها من إجراء الرزق السنيّ، لمن رسم له بالجلوس فيها، والخدمة لها من فقيه وغيره، وحضرها الناس على طبقاتهم، فمنهم من يحضر لقراءة الكتب، ومنهم من يحضر للنسخ، ومنهم من يحضر للتعلم، وجعل فيها ما يحتاج الناس إليه من الحبر، والأقلام، والورق والمحابر، وهي الدار المعروفة بمختار الصقلبيّ
[al-Musabbihi]: On this Saturday … the so-called House of Knowledge in Cairo was inaugurated. The jurists took up residence there, and the books from the palace libraries were moved into it. People could visit it, and whoever wanted to copy something that interested him could do so; the same was true of anyone who wanted to read any of the material kept in it. After the building was furnished and decorated, and after all the doors and passages were provided with curtains, lectures were held there by the Qur’an readers, astronomers, grammarians and philologists, as well as physicians. Guardians, servants, domestics and others were hired to serve there.
Into this house they brought all the books that the commander of the faithful al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered to bring there, that is, the manuscripts in all the domains of science and culture, to an extent to which they had never been brought together for a prince. He allowed access to all this to people of all walks of life, whether they wanted to read books or dip into them. One of the already mentioned blessings, the likes of which had been unheard of, was also that he granted substantial salaries to all those who were appointed by him there to do service – jurists and others. People from all walks of life visited the House; some came to read books, others to copy them, and yet others to study. He also donated what people needed: ink, writing reeds, paper and inkstands. The house was [formally] that of the Slav Mukhtar.
Source: al-Maqrizi, al-Mawa'iz wa'l-I'tibar bi-Dhikr al-Khitat wa'l-Athar (Cairo, 1853-4), vol.1, p.458 ff; tr. taken from H. Halm, The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning (London-New York: I. B. Tauris, 1997, repr. 2001), pp.73-74.
In another statement of al-Musabbihi, al-Maqrizi relates that in the Year 403/1013:
أحضر جماعة من دار العلم من أهل الحساب والمنطق وجماعة من الفقهاء منهم: عبد الغنيّ بن سعيد، وجماعة من الأطباء إلى حضرة الحاكم بأمر الله، وكانت كل طائفة تحضر على انفرادها للمناظرة بين يديه، ثم خلع على الجميع ووصلهم،
[al-Musabbihi said]: From the House of Knowledge a number of mathematicians, logicians and jurists, as well as several physicians were summoned by al-Hakim; the representatives of each discipline appeared before him separately, in order to argue in his presence; thereupon he presented all of them with robes of honour and gifts.
Source: al-Maqrizi, al-Khitat, vol.1, p.459; tr. in Halm, The Fatimids, p.74.
What were al-Hakim's qualities and character?
Historians - whether during the Fatimid period or later - depict al-Hakim as a mad bundle of contradictions. On one hand, earlier negative assessments of al-Hakim is being revised by contemporary scholars in light of new and emerging sources and scrutiny of older sources. On the other hand, al-Hakim remains for many scholars the mad, eccentric and erratic ruler inherited from the medieval depictions - Muslim and non-Muslim. The historian al-Taghribirdi (874/1470) in his historical work al-Nujum al-Zahira fi Muluk al-Misr wa'l-Qahira pp.176-177 relates from the Iraqi historian under the Ayyubids Sibt Ibn al-Jawzi's (d.654/1256) book Mir'at al-Zaman that:
وقد كانت خلافته متضادة بين شجاعة وإقدام، وجبن وإحجام، ومحبة للعلم وانتقام من العلماء، وميل إلى الصلاح وقتل الصلحاء. وكان الغالب عليه السخاء، وربما بخل بما لم يبخل به أحد قط، وأقام يلبس الصوف سبع سنين، وامتنع عن دخول الحمام، وأقام سنين يجلس في الشمع ليلاً ونهارًا، ثم عنَّ له أن يجلس في الظلمة فجلس فيها مدة، وقتل من العلماء والكتاب والأماثل ما لا يحصى، وكتب على المساجد والجوامع سب أبي بكر وعمر وعثمان وعائشة وطلحة والزبير ومعاوية وعمرو بن العاص رضي الله عنهم في سنة خمس وتسعين وثلثمائة، ثم محاه في سنة سبع وتسعين. وأمر بقتل الكلاب، وبيع الفقاع ثم نهى عنه، ورفع المكوس عن البلاد وعما يباع فيها، ونهى عن النجوم وكان ينظر فيها. ونفى المنجمين، وكان يرصدها ويخدم زحل وطالعه المريخ، ولهذا كان يسفك الدماء .وبنى جامع القاهرة، وجامع راشدة على النيل بمصر، ومساجد كثيرة، ونقل إليها المصاحف المفضضة، والستور الحرير، وقناديل الذهب والفضة، ومنع من صلاة التراويح عشر سنين، ثم أباحها. وقطع الكروم ومنع من بيع العنب، ولم يبق في ولايته كرمًا، وأراق خمسة آلاف جرة عسل في البحر، خوفًا من أن تعمل نبيذًا، ومنع النساء من الخروج من بيوتهن ليلاً ونهارًا
His Caliphate was a contradiction encompassing bravery and courage as well as cowardice and desistance; love of knowledge yet inquisition of scholars; an inclination towards good yet killing the righteous; he was often generous yet stingy like no other; he would wear wool for years; prohibit from entering public baths; he would sit under a wax candle day and night and when told to sit in the dark, he would sit for a while; he got innumerable scholars, writers and their likes killed; in the year 395 he ordered to have etched on Mosque walls maledictions regarding Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman, 'A'isha, Talha, al-Zubayr, Mu'awiya and 'Amr ibn al-'As (God be pleased with them all). In 397 he overturned that; he ordered dogs to be killed...
Professor Paul Walker, one of the world's experts in Ismaili thought comments:

Ultimately, both views of him, the mad and despotic tyrant (like Germanic and Roman latino despots) irrationally given to killing those around him on a whim, and the ideal supreme ruler, divinely ordained and chosen, whose every action was just and righteous, were to persist, the one among his enemies and those who rebelled against him, and the other in the hearts of true believers, who, while perhaps perplexed by events, nonetheless remained avidly loyal to him to the end.
Source: Walker, Caliph of Cairo: al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah 996-1021 (Cairo: AUC Press, 2010), p.352
Heinz Halm, the Ismaili and Shi'ite specialist, rejects the common historical interpretation of al-Hakim. He comments:

The Christian chronicler, John of Antioch (Yahya al-Antaki), offered, from a distance, a diagnosis of mental disorder. Later Sunni authors maintained that he stopped washing himself for seven years, that he lived in an underground room for three years without ever leaving it and that he worshipped the planets Mars and Saturn. All this is nonsense. Even the reproach that al-Hakim was unpredictable and erratic and that he used to countermand instructions he had just given cannot be confirmed from the sources. If we refer to the contemporary annals of Cairo, and above all to al-Hakim’s edicts (sijillat), as handed down in the sources, we acquire a very different picture.
Source: Halm, The Fatimids, p.35. See especially his “Der Treuhänder Gottes: Die Edikte des Kalifen al-Hakim,” Der Islam, 63 (1986), pp.11–72.
Below are some examples of the qualities recorded of al-Hakim in the sources:
1. Generosity: al-Hakim is recorded as being an extremely generous ruler; a patron of culture and excellence. Surviving fragments of his title deeds and his expenditure record this generosity. al-Hakim donated his own private estates holdings within Fustat (Old Cairo) for the service and maintenance of the Dar al-'Ilm, the Azhar Mosque and adjacent college and other religious buildings like various Mosques. Al-Maqrizi states:
ووقف الحاكم بأمر الله أماكن في فسطاط مصر على عدّة مواضع، وضمنها كتابا ثبت على قاضي القضاة: مالك بن سعيد، وقد ذكر عند ذكر الجامع الأزهر، وقال فيه: وقد ذكر دار العلم، ويكون العشر وثمن العشر لدار الحكمة لما يحتاج إليه في كل سنة من العين المغربيّ: مائتان وسبعة وخمسون دينارا، من ذلك الثمن الحصر العبدانيّ، وغيرها لهذه الدار عشرة دنانير، ومن ذلك لورق الكاتب يعني الناسخ تسعون دينارا، ومن ذلك للخازن بها ثمانية وأربعون دينارا، ومن ذلك لثمن الماء اثنا عشر دينارا، ومن ذلك للفرّاش خمسة عشر دينارا، وم
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