1. Who were the Aztecs and how did the Aztecs gain influence in the region?

https://aztecprojectempire.wordpress.com/maps/1-aztec_empire_map-4/

The Aztecs, also known as Mexicas, formed one of the most developed pre-Columbian civilizations in America. They ruled central Mexico from the 14^th century until the Spanish conquest in 1521.

When they first arrived in the Valley of Mexico, the area was occupied by several rival city-states, such as the Tepanecs, the Texcocons and the Tlacopans. As the Tepanecs increased their power, revolts against them broke out among other city-states.

The Aztecs, Texcocos and Tlacopans joined in a military and political pact to challenge the Tepanecs. The Triple Alliance soon controlled most of the Valley of Mexico. Their systematic plundering of the conquered territories enriched them. The political influence of the Alliance extended beyond the Valley of Mexico, spreading to the coastlines of both the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico.

 The members of the Triple Alliance formed a confederation under which they maintained some level of independence from one another. Each member had a leader who ruled a separate dominion. However, in under one hundred years, the Aztecs became the most powerful of the three confederate states.

Task One

ATL: Research

2. How did the Aztecs consolidate their Empire?

By 1519, the Aztec Empire comprised vast territories and included several hundred different indigenous groups (see map above). The Aztecs used different methods to control the societies they had conquered and to obtain resources from them. For example, they forced them to pay tributes to the Emperor. They also obliged them to provide men to the Aztec armies. Finally, they demanded these groups contributed  men and women to the ritual sacrifices performed by the Aztec priests. Although these measures brought relative wealth and stability by limiting the power of potential rivals, they contributed to mounting discontent among the subdued societies.

Tenochtitlán, the capital of the Empire was founded in 1325 on an island on Lake Texcoco. It later developed into a symbol of Aztec power. It was as large as many European capitals of the time. It had canals, bridges and causeways connecting it to the mainland across the lake.  It also had stone aqueducts providing the inhabitants with fresh water. With impressive marketplaces, it quickly became an important trade centre in the Valley of Mexico.

https://notitotal.com/2019/11/09/la-venecia-del-nuevo-mundo-a-500-anos-del-encuentro-entre-Cortés-y-moctezuma/2-image_opt/

Task One

ATL: Thinking Skills

Task Two

ATL: Thinking skills

3. Why did Spain want to expand in the Americas?

Hernán Cortés (1485- 1547) was responsible, almost single-handedly, for the Spanish conquest of Central America. He was appointed as commander of a Spanish expedition to the mainland organised by the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, in 1519. Cortés and his men were known as the conquistadors. This section explains why he ended up leading this expedition.

During the 14th Century, Europeans were forced to find new routes for trade to keep up with the demand for luxury goods such as spices, fertile land, slaves and gold.  There was also the aim of expanding the Christian religion to non-Christian peoples. Both Spain and Portugal were in a good position to start such an adventure and had specific reasons for doing so.

Political long-term causes

In 1492, on the same year that Columbus first arrived in the Americas, Queen Isabel de Castilla and King Fernando de Aragon completed the Reconquista of Spain. The Catholic Monarchs expelled the Moors from the Iberian peninsula. Spain emerged as a major military power. Extending the borders and increasing the number of subjects was an opportunity to demonstrate its power to other European nations.

However, when it came to overseas expansion, Portugal – who had expelled the Moors and unified its kingdom before Spain- was ahead. Portuguese expansion in Africa brought slaves and gold. The first reports on the Americas made the Spanish monarchs aware of the fact that they could obtain equal gains from this new territory. Soon, Spanish and Portuguese were competing neck and neck in the Americas, making the exploration and conquest of land a priority for Spain.

Political short-term causes

The Spanish first explored the shores of the Yucatan peninsula in 1515. A second expedition in 1517 found evidence of the riches in the region. The governor of Cuba, Diego de Velásquez, organized a third expedition to the Mexican shores. He partnered with Hernán Cortés, mayor of the city of Santiago de Cuba, to finance the expedition. When appointing Cortés captain of the expedition, governor Velásquez gave him specific instructions. It was not to be an expedition of conquest but of exploration. Cortés was to return to Cuba to report on his findings.

 Shortly before the expedition was due to sail, Governor de Velásquez became suspicious of Cortés’ loyalty and decided to replace him. Cortés allegedly conspired with his captains to disobey Velásquez's instructions and to conquer territory in Mexico for the Spanish crown by himself.  

However, Cortés ignored the governor and sailed from Cuba in February 1519. It was this rivalry between Velásquez and Cortés which accelerated the Spanish conquest of Mexico. Cortés aimed to obtain land and personal glory by conquering rich territories in the name of the Spanish Emperor.

Social long-term causes

The conquistadores came from all walks of life: impoverished nobles, city dwellers, skilled artisans and peasants. By serving God and country, they sought to gain prestige, wealth and social advancement.

 Many Spanish individuals decided to embark themselves on the exploration, conquest and colonization of America at their own cost, often using all their savings for the enterprise. In exchange, the Spanish crown granted them titles and rights over land in America.

Social short-term causes

In the case of Cortés, he came from a lesser Spanish noble family. He arrived in the colony of Hispaniola in 1504, with dreams of fortune and adventure. However, he spent many years living beyond his means. This situation became a crucial factor in his decision to go to Mexico in search of wealth and an opportunity to improve his social status.

Religious long-term causes

The Catholic Monarchs justified the conquest of America by the terms that the papacy had established: the imposition of Catholicism on the conquered territories. The conversion of the indigenous people to Christianity was considered the duty of the Spanish crown.

Additionally, religious motivation provided the conquistadores with a spiritual motive, worth the risks of the voyages and the exploration.

Religious short-term causes

Cortés claimed that he and his men were shocked to hear that the Aztecs performed human sacrifices and became determined to force their conversion to stop these rituals.

Cortés own letters to the Spanish Emperor, Charles I, revealed that he was  determined to show the conquest of the Aztecs as an act of God favoring the Spanish Emperor.

Economic long-term causes

Earlier voyages of exploration acquainted Spain with America’s precious metals and exotic goods. They increased the interest and the pace with which new conquistadores arrived in the New World.

Task One

ATL: Thinking skills

Economic short-term causes

Hernán Cortés decided to explore the American mainland looking for treasures ahead of other expeditions from the Caribbean settlements, such as Hispaniola.

Task one

ATL: social and communication skills

4. Why were the Spanish successful in reaching the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán?

The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was largely determined by what Cortés found out about the Aztecs before he first met them. This section deals with the role of some significant individuals, such as Gerónimo de Aguilar and Malinche, in the lead up to the arrival of Cortés in Tenochtitlán.

Task One

ATL: Thinking skills

Cortés landed on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in April 1519. He had no intentions of returning to Cuba but decided to look for treasures in the new territory. Consequently, he resigned as the delegate of the governor of Cuba and founded the city of Villa Rica de la Veracruz, the first Spanish settlement on continental America. The elected municipal governors of Veracruz appointed him captain-general and chief justice, making Veracruz independent from Cuba and from Velásquez. Free to make his own decisions, Cortés left Veracruz and travelled inland. However, Cortés obtained the release of the explorer Geronimo de Aguilar, who after a shipwreck many years before, had remained a prisoner of an indigenous group. De Aguilar learnt one of the indigenous languages, Maya, and helped Cortés communicate with the natives of the area.

One issue that worked to Cortés’ advantage was that the Aztec empire was undergoing domestic tension. Tribes under their control protested the tributary pressure and wished to end the violent rule of the Aztecs. Many revolts were violent, and Cortés decided to exploit the discontent against the Aztecs. He understood that in order to fight the Aztecs, he needed the help of other native groups as he had arrived with under 600 men.

The Totonacs and Cempoalans, under Aztec domination, provided him with information about the wealth and sophistication of the Aztec Empire. They also complained about the iron hand with which the Aztecs dominated them and about the high tributes they had to pay to the Aztec emperor. The Spanish were shocked when they heard the Aztecs demanded young men and women from the dominated tribes for ritual sacrifices to appease their gods.

Cortés offered Spanish support against the Aztecs in exchange for other groups’ submission to the Spanish Crown. Soon, several thousand Tlaxcalan warriors joined the Spanish on their march to Tenochtitlán.

It was during the formation of these alliances that Cortés received a young indigenous woman, Malinche, as a personal gift. She spoke Nahuatl and Maya and quickly learned Spanish. Both Aguilar and Malinche helped Cortés communicate with native groups and establish key military alliances. Her role, on the arrival of Cortés to the Aztec Empire, was crucial as she became the translator between the Spanish captain and the Aztec Emperor, Moctezuma II.

In November 1519 Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlán. As an act of respect to Moctezuma, he entered the city escorted only the Spanish men, leaving his indigenous allies outside. Once inside the city, the Spanish were in awe at the size and sophistication of the Aztec capital.

Moctezuma welcomed Cortés as his guest, showered him with gifts of gold and valuable objects and invited him to stay in one of his palaces where the Spanish were treated as guests of honor.

Task Two

ATL: Social and communication skills

You may wonder why the Aztecs, who were by far numerically superior to the Spanish, did not resist the Spanish approach. There are two main reasons to this.

The first was a religious motive. Aztec accounts written after the conquest claim that in 1519 the arrival of the Spanish on the Mexican coasts was interpreted as the fulfillment of an ancient prophesy. They identified Cortés and his men with the predicted return of the Aztec god of wisdom, Quetzacoatl, to his people.

The second is a strategic reason. Moctezuma was following more recent experiences. The Spanish arriving in 1517  agreed to leave after receiving large amounts of gold and other treasures. Moctezuma thought that if he did the same, the Spanish would turn back once again. However, the Aztec generosity had the opposite effect on Cortés. The more valuables presented to the Spanish, the more determined they were to stay.

Task Three

ATL – Communication skills

5. What factors caused a rise in tension between the Spanish and the Aztecs?

The following sections analyses how Spanish- Aztec relations took a turn for the worse, leading to the outbreak of war. It assesses the influence of religious, political and diplomatic causes. Finally, it discusses war strategies used in the conflict.

Religious tensions

It was not long before relations between the two leaders grew strained. One of the reasons was Moctezuma´s refusal to abandon the Aztec religion and convert to Christianity. On their way to Tenochtitlán, the Spanish successfully converted other groups. They had, for example, destroyed the Totonac idols and replaced them with images of Christ and the Virgin Mary. They had heard the Aztecs performed human sacrifices as a religious ritual and they demanded the end of this.

Task One

ATL Thinking skills

Political tensions

Cortés took Moctezuma hostage when he learnt that the Aztecs had attacked his allies, the Totonacs, and had also murdered several Spanish soldiers in Veracruz. This event made Cortés suspicious of the Emperor’s intentions and conclude that, although Moctezuma treated the Spanish as guests in Tenochtitlán, he could take them hostage any moment.

Moctezuma, rather than resisting, submitted to Cortés and appeased his people by saying he was voluntarily staying in the palace with the Spanish. His response to events increased the distrust among the nobility who had never understood why Moctezuma had allowed the Spanish to enter and remain in Tenochtitlán. There was a growing feeling among them that Moctezuma was not appeasing the Spanish but had become their puppet.

The massacre in the Great Temple of Tenochtitlán

The governor of Cuba, Diego Velásquez, outraged by Hernán Cortés' betrayal, sent an army of 1,500 men to arrest him. Cortés placed his lieutenant Pedro Alvarado in command of Tenochtitlán and marched towards Veracruz to face Velásquez’s forces. He quickly defeated them and returned to Tenochtitlán. However, under Alvarado’s rule, a major crisis broke out in Tenochtitlán.

 During a religious celebration on May 1520, Spanish forces entered the Great Temple of Tenochtitlán, locked the doors and killed thousands of unarmed men, women and children, including members of the nobility. The people of Tenochtitlán, outraged by the massacre, spontaneously rebelled against the Spanish, who, having lost control of the city, were forced to take refuge in their palace.

Although Alvarado’s attack triggered events, the clash between Spanish and Aztecs would have broken out sooner or later as the latter grew more and more resentful of Spanish greed and arrogance.

When accounting for the Massacre of the Great Temple of Tenochtitlán, the Aztec version states that the Spanish attacked the temple and murdered those attending the ceremony because they were after the gold the Aztecs were wearing in the ceremony.

One Spanish account claims that the Aztecs were about to perform human sacrifices and that violence broke out as armed men entered the temple to prevent this.

Another Spanish account claims Alvarado was determined to kill the Aztec nobles either because they wanted to free Moctezuma and oust the Spanish.

The Night of Sorrow

On June 20, 1520, Cortés, supported by thousands of indigenous enemies of the Aztecs, re-entered Tenochtitlán. He demanded that Moctezuma released the imprisoned Spanish and that he appeased the population, but the emperor was killed by a rock thrown at him when trying to address his subjects. There are, however, historical accounts claiming that Cortés killed Moctezuma as he was no longer useful to him.

Moctezuma’s successor, Cuitlahuac, was determined to act more decisively. As Cortés and his were secretly fleeing the city, shocked by the violent reaction of the population, the new Emperor launched a surprise attack on them from behind. Cuitlahuac destroyed the bridges over the lake and attacked the Spanish from the outer banks of Tenochtitlán.

 During the battle fought under heavy rain, many of the men were drowned in Lake Texcoco, as they were too heavy under the weight of their armour and the pillaged treasures they were taking with them. Cortés lost most of his men, horses, and armaments on that “Night of Sorrow”. It is believed that, on the “Night of Sorrow”, Cortés sat under a cypress tree and wept for the loss of his men. A different interpretation suggests he wept for the gold lost and sunk into Lake Texcoco.

As they were on their way to Tlaxcala seeking refuge, the remaining Spanish forces were met by thousands of Aztec warriors. Cortés, mounted on his horse, was able to capture the Aztec general, making the rest of them flee.

The return of the Spanish

It was almost a year after the Night of Sorrow that Cortés and his allies arrived back in Tenochtitlán. The Aztecs had almost come to believe that the Spanish had left for good and were unprepared for a confrontation. When, in June 1521, Cortés returned to Tenochtitlán with over 75,000 other indigenous peoples, he started a siege of the city, blocking all access to Tenochtitlán. He had several sloops (gunboats) patrolling the lake which were no match for the Aztec canoes.

Task One

ATL: Thinking skills

Task Two

ATL: self-management skills

6. Why were the Spanish able to defeat the Aztecs?